Chemistry

Poisons have been used throughout history as murder weapons. This course will explore some of the world’s most dreaded poisons. In each case, course work will look at the poison’s origin, its discovery, and its use in notorious murders or attempted murders. Students will explore each poison’s chemical structure and its effect on the human body. By understanding the chemical properties of a particular poison, students will learn how detectives or forensic scientists can discover its use and bring perpetrators to justice. We will also see that many of these deadly substances can be used as lifesaving drugs or have led to the development of new treatments for diseases. Students are encouraged to take this course to learn chemistry in a macabre manner—but be sure not to eat or drink anything during class!

This course is the first part of a two-semester sequence that provides a broad foundation for the scientific discipline of chemistry, introducing its fundamental principles and techniques alongside demonstrating the central role of chemistry in biology and medicine. Students first look at basic descriptions of elemental properties, the periodic table, solid and molecular structures, and chemical bonding. The course then relates these topics to the electronic structure of atoms. The mole as a unit is introduced so that a quantitative treatment of stoichiometry can be considered. After this introduction, the course goes on to consider physical chemistry, which provides the basis for a quantitative understanding of: 1) the kinetic theory of gases (which is developed to consider the nature of liquids and solids); 2) equilibria and the concepts of the equilibrium constant and of pH; 3) energy changes in chemical reactions and the fundamental principles of thermodynamics; 4) the rates of chemical reactions and the concepts of the rate determining step and activation energy. Practical work in the lab portion of this course introduces students to the use and handling of basic chemical equipment and illustrates the behavior of simple chemical substances. In addition to the two regular class meetings and lab session each week, there will be an hour-long weekly group conference. This course will be of interest to students considering the study of chemistry or biology and to those planning on a career in medicine and related health.

Organic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds whose molecules are based on a framework of carbon atoms, typically in combination with hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Despite this rather limited set of elements, there are more organic compounds known than there are compounds that do not contain carbon. Adding to the importance of organic chemistry is the fact that many of the chemical compounds that make modern life possible—such as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, herbicides, plastics, pigments, and dyes—can be classed as organic. Organic chemistry, therefore, impacts many other scientific subjects; thus, knowledge of organic chemistry is essential for a detailed understanding of materials science, environmental science, molecular biology, and medicine. This course gives an overview of the structures, physical properties, and reactivity of organic compounds. Students will see that organic compounds can be classified into families of similar compounds, based upon certain groups of atoms that always behave in a similar manner no matter what molecule they are in. These functional groups will enable the class to rationalize the vast number of reactions that organic reagents undergo. Topics covered include: the types of bonding within organic molecules; fundamental concepts of organic reaction mechanisms (nucleophilic substitution, elimination, and electrophilic addition); the conformations and configurations of organic molecules; and the physical and chemical properties of alkanes, halogenoalkanes, alkenes, alkynes and alcohols. In the laboratory section of the course, students will develop the techniques and skills required to synthesize, separate, purify, and identify organic compounds. Organic chemistry is a key requirement for pre-med students and is strongly encouraged for all others who are interested in the biological and physical sciences.

This course will provide an introduction to basic concepts of chemistry and their application to current environmental issues. Topics will include acid rain, ozone depletion, air pollution, climate change (global warming), surface water and groundwater pollution, and plastics and polymers. Students will then consider how human activities—such as transportation, energy production, and chemical industries—influence the environment.

Tracing its origins back to ancient Egypt, alchemy was a dark—often forbidden—art, whose practitioners wrote cryptic, encoded, symbolic, and often secretive texts. Driven by the desire to turn base metals into gold and to discover the Philosopher’s Stone and, with it, the secret of immortality, alchemists studied the transmutation of physical substances. Despite its unsavory reputation, alchemy was practiced by some of the most extraordinary individuals in the history of humanity’s intellectual development: Jabir ibn Hayyan, Roger Bacon, Paracelsus, and Robert Boyle. Indeed, Isaac Newton—widely regarded as the father of modern science—wrote more alchemical manuscripts than on any other subject. In this course, we will investigate the essence of alchemy and its turbulent history. The course will then explore the legacy of alchemy: how the work of the alchemists enabled the scientists of the 18th and 19th centuries to transform alchemical lore into the modern science of chemistry. 

Nutrition is the sum of all interactions between us and the food that we consume. The study of nutrition includes the nature and general role of nutrients in forming structural material, providing energy, and helping to regulate metabolism. How do food chemists synthesize the fat that cannot be digested? Can this kind of fat satisfy our innate appetite for fats? Are there unwanted side effects, and why? What constitutes a healthy diet? What are the consequences of severely restricted food intake seen in prevalent emotional disorders such as anorexia and bulimia? These and other questions will be discussed. The course will also discuss the effect of development, pregnancy, emotional state, and disease on nutritional requirements. And students will also consider effects of food production and processing on nutrition value and food safety.

This course is a continuation of General Chemistry I (CHEM 2010). The course will begin with a detailed study of both the physical and chemical properties of solutions, which will enable students to consider the factors that affect both the rates and direction of chemical reactions. Students will then investigate the properties of acids and bases and the role that electricity plays in chemistry. The course will conclude with introductions to nuclear chemistry and organic chemistry. Weekly lab sessions will allow us to demonstrate and test the theories described in the lecture segment of the course.

In this course, students will explore the physical and chemical properties of additional families of organic molecules. The reactivity of aromatic compounds, aldehydes and ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivatives (acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, esters, and amides), enols and enolates, and amines will be discussed. The course will also investigate the methods by which large, complicated molecules can be synthesized from simple starting materials. Modern methods of organic structural determination—such as mass spectrometry, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy—will also be introduced. In the lab section of this course, students will continue to develop the techniques and skills required to synthesize, separate, purify, and identify organic compounds. This course is a key requirement for pre-med students and is strongly encouraged for others interested in the biological and physical sciences.

At the biological core of all life on Earth is the gene. The unique combination of genes in each individual ultimately forms the basis for that person's physical appearance, metabolic capacity, thought processes, and behavior. Therefore, in order to understand how life develops and functions, it is critical to understand what genes are, how they work, and how they are passed on from parents to offspring. In this course, we will begin by investigating the theories of inheritance first put forth by Mendel, then progress to our current concepts of how genes are transmitted through individuals, families, and whole populations. We will also examine chromosome structure and the mechanisms and molecular functions of genes and DNA within cells, as well as how mutations in DNA can lead to physical abnormalities and diseases such as Trisomy 21, hemophilia, or others. Finally, we will discuss the role of genetics in influencing complex phenotypes such as behavior or traits such as intelligence. Classes will be supplemented with weekly lab work.

The pollution of our air, water, and soils is responsible for millions of deaths across the world each year, along with immeasurable harm to natural ecosystems. In this seminar, we will study the chemistry of environmental pollutants that are most salient today—including lead, soot, pesticides, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), sewage, nutrients, and greenhouse gases—and how their chemistry influences their fate and transport through the environment and, in turn, their impacts on human health and natural ecosystems. We will also learn about basic techniques of pollutant monitoring and strategies to remediate different types of pollution and restore healthy ecosystems and communities. Beyond this, we will explore the broader concept of pollution, considering how compounds that can be vital to our survival can also harm our environment and how thresholds for when a compound becomes a “pollutant” are determined. Course work will include both chemistry problem sets and diverse readings about historic and current pollution issues. Conference work will allow students to develop a case study of a pollution incident or ongoing issue.

Our existence lies in a perpetual state of change. An apple falls from a tree, clouds move across expansive farmland, blocking out the sun for days; meanwhile, satellites zip around the Earth, transmitting and receiving signals to our cell phones. Calculus was invented to develop a language to accurately describe the motion and change happening all around us. The ancient Greeks began a detailed study of change, but they were scared to wrestle with the infinite; so it was not until the 17th century that Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz, among others, tamed the infinite and gave birth to this extremely successful branch of mathematics. Though just a few hundred years old, calculus has become an indispensable research tool in both the natural and social sciences. Our study begins with the central concept of the limit and proceeds to explore the dual processes of differentiation and integration. Numerous applications of the theory will be examined. Weekly group conferences will be run in hands-on workshop mode. This course is intended for students interested in advanced study in mathematics or sciences, students preparing for careers in the health sciences or engineering, and any student wishing to broaden and enrich the life of the mind. 

Variance, correlation coefficient, regression analysis, statistical significance, and margin of error—these terms and other statistical phrases have been bantered about before and seen interspersed in news reports and research articles. But what do they mean? How are they used? And why are they so important? Serving as an introduction to the concepts, techniques, and reasoning central to the understanding of data, this course will focus on the fundamental methods of statistical analysis used to gain insight into diverse areas of human interest. The use, misuse, and abuse of statistics will be the central focus of the course; and specific topics of exploration will be drawn from experimental design theory, sampling theory, data analysis. and statistical inference. Applications will be considered in current events, business, psychology, politics, medicine, and many other areas of the natural and social sciences. Statistical software will be introduced and used extensively in this course, but no prior experience with spreadsheet technology is assumed. Group conferences, conducted in workshop mode, will serve to reinforce student understanding of the course material. This course is recommended for any student wishing to be a better-informed consumer of data, and strongly recommended for those planning to pursue advanced undergraduate or graduate research in the natural sciences or social sciences. 

Calculus is the mathematical gift that keeps on giving—thank you, Newton and company! In this course, students will expand their knowledge of limits, derivatives, and integrals with concepts and techniques that will enable them to solve many important problems in mathematics and the sciences. By the end of the course, students will be able to judge whether answers provided by engine services such as WolframAlpha or ChatGPT are correct. Topics will include differentiation review, integration review, integration with non-polynomial functions, applications of integration (finding area, volume, length, center of mass, moment of inertia, probability), advanced techniques for integration (substitution, integration-by-parts, partial fractions), infinite sequences, infinite series, convergent and divergent sums, power series, differential equations and modeling dynamical systems, and, time permitting, parametric equations of a curve and polar coordinates. Students will work on a conference project related to the mathematical topics covered in class and are free to choose technical, historical, crafty, computational, or creative projects.

Rarely is a quantity of interest—tomorrow’s temperature, unemployment rates across Europe, the cost of a spring break flight to Fort Lauderdale—a simple function of just one primary variable. Reality, for better or worse, is mathematically multivariable. This course will introduce an array of topics and tools used in the mathematical analysis of multivariable functions. The intertwined theories of vectors, matrices, and differential equations and their applications will be the central themes of exploration. Specific topics to be covered will include the algebra and geometry of vectors in two, three, and higher dimensions; dot and cross products and their applications; equations of lines and planes in higher dimensions; solutions to systems of linear equations, using Gaussian elimination; theory and applications of determinants, inverses, and eigenvectors; volumes of three-dimensional solids via integration; spherical and cylindrical coordinate systems; and methods of visualizing and constructing solutions to differential equations of various types. Conference work will involve an investigation of some mathematically-themed subject of the student’s choosing.

One of the biggest challenges humanity currently faces is the need to revamp our energy systems to avoid the most hazardous impacts due to global warming. Unfortunately, our predominately carbon-based energy system—the largest source of greenhouse gases from human activities in the United States—has significantly contributed to climate change. One of our best chances to mitigate environmental impacts is to switch to renewable, and ideally carbon-free, energy systems. Using both theory and experiments, we will explore the physics behind current renewable energy systems—including geothermal, wind, solar, and nuclear fission—as well as investigate the future potential of the hydrogen strategy and nuclear fusion. We will look at both the practical challenges and the potential promises of decarbonizing global energy production to become more informed consumers and citizens in our rapidly changing world. While students are not expected to have taken any physics courses before this course, a basic comfort with algebra is desirable and a natural curiosity to learn is essential.

General physics is a standard course at most institutions; as such, this course will prepare students for more advanced work in physical science, engineering, or the health fields. Lectures will be accessible at all levels; and through group conference, students will have the option of either taking an algebra-based or calculus-based course. This course will cover introductory classical mechanics, including kinematics, dynamics, momentum, energy, and gravity. Emphasis will be placed on scientific skills, including problem-solving, development of physical intuition, scientific communication, use of technology, and development and execution of experiments. The best way to develop scientific skills is to practice the scientific process. We will focus on learning physics through discovering, testing, analyzing, and applying fundamental physics concepts in an interactive classroom, through problem-solving, as well as in weekly lab meetings.

Explore the beautiful mathematics and physics of waves through both theory and experiment. This course will teach students valuable mathematical methods and basic computational skills that are necessary for more advanced physical-science classes. Lab class time will include using advanced lab equipment, analyzing data using Jupyter (IPython) notebooks, learning numerical techniques, and reporting the results using LaTeX. For conference work, students are encouraged to choose an American Journal of Physics article to replicate, analyze, and then present their findings at the semi-annual Sarah Lawrence College Science & Mathematics Poster Session.

This course will explore the topic of time from a wide variety of viewpoints—from the physical, to the metaphysical, to the practical. We will seek the answers to questions such as: What is time? How do we perceive time? Why does time appear to flow only in one direction? Is time travel possible? How is time relative? We will explore the perception of time across cultures and eras, break down the role of time in fundamental physics, and discuss popular science books and articles, along with science-inspired works of fiction, to make sense of this fascinating topic. Time stops for no one, but let us take some time to appreciate its uniqueness.

General physics is a standard course at most institutions; as such, this course will prepare students for more advanced work in physical science, engineering, or the health fields. Lectures will be accessible at all levels; and through group conference, students will have the option of either taking an algebra-based or calculus-based course. This course will cover waves, geometric and wave optics, electrostatics, magnetostatics, and electrodynamics. We will use the exploration of the particle and wave properties of light to bookend discussions and ultimately finish our exploration of classical physics with the hints of its incompleteness. Emphasis will be placed on scientific skills, including problem-solving, development of physical intuition, scientific communication, use of technology, and development and execution of experiments. The best way to develop scientific skills is to practice the scientific process. We will focus on learning physics through discovering, testing, analyzing, and applying fundamental physics concepts in an interactive classroom, through problem-solving, as well as in weekly lab meetings.

We encounter temperature on a daily basis when we check our weather apps and have undoubtedly heard discussions about the greenhouse effect and Earth’s warming climate. But what do scientists mean by warming? How can they model it? And what even is temperature? In this course, we will dig into the fascinating world of thermal physics, which is important for delving into many more advanced topics in physics, geosciences, or chemistry. Topics will include: thermodynamics, including energy, temperature, work, heat, and ideal gases; statistical mechanics, including entropy, partition functions, distributions, chemical potential, nonideal gases, bosonic gas, and fermionic gas; and applications from physics, chemistry, and engineering, such as engines, refrigerators, Bose-Einstein condensates, black holes, and climate models. For conference work, students will be encouraged to model a simple thermal system of their choice, using the mathematical and numerical methods developed throughout the course.